Flickering Flames of Ming: Historical Consciousness in Early Modern Transnational Chinese Secret Societies

Chinese secret societies of the Qing dynasty, exemplified by the Heaven and Earth Society (Tiandihui), have long been perceived as bearing a sacred mission to overthrow the Qing and restore the Ming dynasty. Such narratives would later be transformed into powerful political symbols during the Chinese Republican Revolution of the early twentieth century. Through examination of historical consciousness among secret society members in eighteenth and nineteenth-century Qing China, this paper analyzes how the historical memory of the Ming dynasty was remembered and reinterpreted within these secret societies and what profound meanings were attached to the concept of “Ming.” The study also investigates how various actors, including Qing officials and anti-Qing revolutionaries, had shaped the historical consciousness of these societies to advance their respective political agendas. Additionally, this research extends to examine the dominant historical narratives within Chinese secret societies in nineteenth-century Southeast Asia and North America, exploring the role of historical consciousness within the context of transnational migration and the Chinese diaspora. Significant contributions to scholarly understanding are anticipated in several key areas: information dissemination, rebellion, historical consciousness, state governance, revolution, and migration in Qing China.