Success Subject to Arrest: Gambling Money, Policing, and Black Enterprise in Business, Politics, and Sports

During the decades from the 1920s through the 1960s the illegal numbers game was among the largest employers, and most important sources of capital for black economic and political endeavors in many major American cities. Meanwhile, gambling enforcement stood among the largest arrest categories for big city police departments. Such arrest activity was overwhelmingly focused on African American gamblers. This dynamic of racially targeted policing served to shape the economic, political and social outcomes of the many projects of black life financed by gambling money. By focusing on several prominent numbers operators who put their money to work in legitimate enterprises and efforts, I hope to explore both the impact and limitations of illegal money within urban life. John Roxborough, a Detroit numbers man, and Julian Black, a Chicago policy gambling operator, managed the career of heavyweight champion Joe Louis, financing his early training with their gambling proceeds. Chicago Congressman William L. Dawson built a powerful political machine on the Southside of Chicago during the 1940s and 50s relying heavily on gambling money and manpower from local gambling operations. In Baltimore, numbers man Willie Adams built a business empire that included the Super Pride Supermarket chain, and the Parks Sausage company. While all of these figures accomplished a great deal, all were also eventually embroiled in either public scandal or significant legal trouble, as their history highlights the perils, limitations and vulnerabilities inherent in outlaw financing.