Rhetoric and Reality in the Ancient Middle East

The sixth century BCE was a transformative period in human history—in particular, it was a time that saw the creation of a vast multiethnic state traditionally known as the Persian Empire (ca. 550-330 BCE). Cyrus the Great, the founder, was hailed as a messiah in the Hebrew Bible; and the usurper Darius I was viewed by Greek writers as a second founder who secured the gains of rapid Persian expansion through adept organization and administration. Most of the extant textual evidence for the Persian Empire comes from Greek sources; but to understand the theoretical and practical foundations of the Persian Empire, we must first focus on the limited number of Persian sources, particularly Darius I’s inscription at Bisitun. In this text, Darius I speaks to us directly and formulates a clear message of dynamic individualism and uncompromising state sovereignty. Despite the persistent notion of a clear-cut dichotomy between East and West, this paper will demonstrate how a monument like Darius I’s inscription represents a living embodiment of sovereignty based on real and fictive kinship and righteous thought and action. Biblical and Greek writers interpreted Persian articulations of power through their own cultural frameworks, but their specific formulations reproduce many of the core values expressed in Darius I’s inscription at Bisitun. Despite the development of alternative conceptions of legitimate political authority—such as theocracy, aristocracy, oligarchy, or democracy—there are key similarities in the predominant political ideologies of ancient Persia, Judaea, and Greece. This paper will argue for a radical reimagining of the living legacy of texts and monuments across diverse regions and cultures to move beyond outdated modes of thought and ways of being.