Imperial Idols: French and U.S. Revenants in Haitian Vodoun

Haitian vodoun is often presented as a religion derived from Kikongo and Benin (West and Central African) sources, and thus considered to be centrally an African-American religion.  This paper considers features around the periphery of formal religion related to beliefs about magic and sorcery which originated in contact with the U.S. and France, and the meaning of these icons of power within popular occult traditions in Haiti. In particular, I focus on the lougarou or werewolf which is associated with secret societies that originated in West Africa, yet which also has important roots in French agrarian folklore concerning animals and the demonic as well as mortuary traditions of Normandy.  In addition, I discuss the appearance of U.S. Marines as spirits of possession representing the vodoun god Ogou, which call for U.S. commodities such as oatmeal, jam and whiskey as sacrificial offerings.  This martial god emerged as a popular protective lwa or deity among aggrieved Haitian women who had been spurned by their marine lovers during the U.S. occupation (1915-32) and found within vodoun an outlet for their rage, yet it continues to be a powerful sign of authority in contemporary Haiti.